Drivers of the Worldwide Distribution of Raphidiopsis raciborskii: Evidence from Experimental to Field Studies

Abstract

Raphidiopsis raciborskii is one of the most widely reported cyanobacteria worldwide, responsible for dense blooms and cyanotoxin production. Classified as invasive, it has been documented across all continents except Antarctica. While its distribution has been extensively studied, abiotic factors have consistently emerged as the main determinants of its success, which are therefore the focus of the present study. The objective of the present review is to synthesize findings from both experimental and field-based studies to identify which are the key drivers of its dominance. In total, 30 abiotic factors were reported, reflecting the broad strategies of the species. Results show the temperature as a consistent universal factor (11–35 ◦C), while differences were found regarding nutrient dynamics. Particularly, nitrogen forms and N/P ratios predominated in field-based evidence, whereas photosynthetically active radiation was disproportionately emphasized within experimental studies under controlled conditions. Factors such as salinity and micronutrients, and synergistic interactions remain critically understudied, limiting predictive capacity under global change scenarios. Understanding which combinations of these drivers create favorable conditions is essential for anticipating bloom dynamics in order to establish management strategies for avoiding or mitigating the negative impact of them.