General conceptions in sociological tensions: The dualism of Niklas Luhmann

Abstract

Typically, sociology organizes its debates around a series of issues, which are addressed by presenting opposing alternative pairs. Various theoretical exercises shape this task using the notions of dichotomies, dilemmas, and guiding distinctions. In this article, we begin with a review of this literature, focusing on how these approaches conceptualize relationships and the goals they pursue, before supporting our choice to focus on tensions. Subsequently, we adopt Niklas Luhmann’s Social Systems Theory as the central empirical reference, using the categories of position, conception, and general conception to guide our analysis. Specifically, we explore his conception in three classic tensions that have structured sociological thought since its foundation: individual/society, referring to the delimitation of the discipline’s object of study; knowledge/reality, concerning the foundation of scientific knowledge; and description/critique, regarding the orientation of sociological practice. Given that dualism predominates in the Luhmannian conception, we complement the analysis of each tension with examples of monistic and integrative conceptions. Finally, the conclusions present the results, outlining the potential of our analytical framework.