Eco-friendly solvents in liquid–liquid microextraction techniques for biological and environmental analysis: a critical review

Abstract

In recent years, green solvents have emerged as promising alternatives in the field of analytical chemistry, replacing conventional organic solvents known for their toxicity, volatility, and flammability. The combination of these solvents with liquid–liquid microextraction techniques has facilitated the development of simpler, faster, more economical, and environment-friendly methodologies for the analysis of samples of varying complexity. This review discusses the fundamental physicochemical properties and advantages of using deep eutectic solvents, ionic liquids, switchable-hydrophilicity solvents, supramolecular solvents, and surfactants as extractants. Furthermore, analytical methods based on liquid–liquid microextraction techniques developed in the last 5 years for the determination of organic compounds and metals in biological and environmental samples are presented and discussed, highlighting their applications and benefits to improve analytical performance and sustainability.